Challenging the public realm

Private and fortified communities are by no means new in urban history. Cities from ancient times through the Middle Ages often featured walls for protection from inter-group hostility. By the 19th century, though, with pacification and internal security contributing to the development of the modern nation state, the open city became a more characteristic form in Western nations (Mumford, 1961). Rulers and governments invested in urban infrastructure like parks, streets, and sidewalks, creating an improved public realm. While the public spaces and streets of Victorian era cities were in theory open, in practice they were often contested and dominated by the interests of particular classes (Domosh, 1998; Goheen, 2004; Lawrence, 1993). Even with open boundaries, cities can exclude or segregate people.